Language Offers All the You Can Ever Hope to Know.

Learning a language is a complex, fourth dimension-intensive task that requires dedication, persistence, and hard work. If you're reading this, then y'all probably already know that.

What y'all might non know is that in that location are strategies that can help you report more than finer, then that yous make the nigh of your time and free energy. This handout first explains some of the key principles that guide effective language learning, and so describes activities that tin can help you put these principles into exercise. Use these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills grow.

Key principles of language learning

The Basics:

Start, let's talk well-nigh the basics. Research in this surface area (called "2d language acquisition" in academia) suggests that there are iii key elements to learning a new language.

• The first is comprehensible input, which is a fancy mode of saying being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to empathize information technology.
• Comprehensible output is the second element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language.
• The third element is review or feedback, which basically means identifying errors and making changes in response.[i]

Fancy terms aside, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas.

These three elements are the building blocks of your language practice, and an effective study programme will maximize all three. The more than you listen and read (input), the more y'all speak and write (output), the more than you go back over what you've done and learn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your linguistic communication skills will grow.

DO: Create a written report program that maximizes the 3 dimensions of language learning: understanding (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback).

Seek balance

Learning a new language involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If yous focus exclusively on just one activity, the others fall backside.

This is actually a common pitfall for linguistic communication learners. For example, it's piece of cake to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part because written language is often readily attainable—for i affair, y'all have a whole textbook total of information technology. This is besides true of the 3 fundamental elements: information technology'south comparatively easy to find input sources (like your textbook) and do understanding them. Simply neglecting the other 2 key principles (output and feedback/review) tin can boring downwards language growth.

Instead, what you need is a balanced report plan: a mix of written report activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all three key principles.

Exercise: Focus on balance: practice both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the three key principles—input, output, and feedback/review.

Errors are important

Sometimes, the biggest claiming to language learning is overcoming our own fears: fearfulness of making a error, of proverb the wrong thing, of embarrassing yourself, of not beingness able to detect the right give-and-take, then on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to make mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes volition be very public.

The thing is, you NEED to make those mistakes. One of the key principles of linguistic communication learning is all nearly making errors and and so learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you're not willing to brand errors, then the amount of language you produce (your output) goes fashion downwards. In other words, being agape of making a mistake negatively affects two of the 3 key principles of language learning!

And so what do you practise? In part, you may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. However, you lot should also look for ways to get low-stakes do: create situations in which you feel more than comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes.

For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of language skill. This is ofttimes more comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they're usually easier to find—you've got a whole course full of potential partners!

Practise: Learn to capeesh mistakes, and push yourself to become more comfortable with making errors.

DO: Create opportunities for 'low-stakes' practice, where you lot'll feel comfortable practicing and making mistakes.

Spread it out

Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of material, then you'll want to use your study fourth dimension as effectively equally possible. According to research in educational and cerebral psychology, 1 of the virtually effective learning strategies is distributed practise. This concept has two master components: spacing, which is breaking study time up into multiple modest sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[2]

For example, let'southward imagine yous have a listing of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Sunday, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If y'all can but spend a total of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study programme will be the almost effective?

(A) Study for 30 minutes on Thursday.
(B) Study for 10 minutes at a time on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday.
(C) Study for 10 minutes at a fourth dimension on Sunday, Tuesday, and Th.
(D) Study for 30 minutes on Lord's day.

If you look at the full fourth dimension spent studying, all four options are exactly the same. But research suggests that choice C is the most effective way to manage your time: instead of studying the vocabulary all at one time, you've spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you've also increased the amount of fourth dimension between study sessions. (And yes, this is also why "cramming" isn't a good study program!)

Practise: Intermission up your written report fourth dimension into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time.

Bump upwardly your memory

Memory is a critical role of whatsoever kind of studying, and effective memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you're non "adept at" memorizing things, don't despair! Although people often think of retention as a fixed quality, it'southward actually a skill that you can improve through deliberate practice.

At that place's a considerable corporeality of research on how memory works, besides as a wide range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments prove that our short-term memory tin can only hold nearly 7 pieces of new data at once. So if y'all're working on a long list of new vocabulary words, start by breaking it upwardly into smaller chunks, and written report one shorter section at a fourth dimension. Additionally, research as well suggests that recall-based written report methods are most constructive. This means that actively trying to recall data is more effective than simply reviewing information; essentially, cocky-testing will help you lot more re-reading your notes volition.[4]

The all-time style to commencement working on your memory is to build on the techniques that you already know work for you. For example, if associating a give-and-take with a moving-picture show is constructive for you, and so yous should incorporate images into your vocabulary practice. Withal, if you lot're not sure where to first, here's a "beginner" formula for memorizing a new word: employ the discussion at to the lowest degree five times the showtime twenty-four hours that yous learn it, so multiple times over the calendar week, at least once every 24-hour interval.

If yous're interested in more tips for improving your memory, check out our resource on memorization strategies.

In addition to figuring out which memorization techniques work all-time for you, it'due south also important to actively protect your memory. For instance, experiencing a stiff emotion has been shown to sharply subtract the power to memorize unrelated content. (And so if yous've just watched a horror motion picture, it's probably not a slap-up time for vocabulary review!)

To get the most out of your study time, here's a list of common "retentivity killers" to avoid:

Stress and feet: Just similar other stiff emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your ability to make new memories and recall information.

Information overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a great thought, just information technology's actually a really ineffective employ of fourth dimension. In fact, taking a curt suspension every 30 minutes helps improve focus, and subsequently two hours y'all should consider switching topics.

Fatigue: The more tired you are, the less effective your memory is. Chronic sleep deprivation is particularly detrimental, so those late-night written report sessions might actually do more damage than good!

Multitasking: Equally yous may have noticed, all of these "memory killers" are besides things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most mutual source of lark. In fact, hither's a great dominion of thumb for protecting your retention: if you're non supposed to practise it while driving, then you lot shouldn't do it while studying. (Yeah, that means drinking, texting, and watching Netflix "in the background" are all NOs.)

Do: Increment memorization by breaking information into small chunks and studying the chunks one at a fourth dimension, and by using recall-based strategies like self-testing.

DO: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the memory techniques that work best for y'all into your study plan.

Vocab is king

Desire to know a hole-and-corner? Vocabulary is more important than grammer.
DISCLAIMER: This does NOT mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammar, yous won't know how to use your vocabulary, since grammar tells y'all how to combine words into sentences. And plainly, if you're in a foreign language class, you're going to demand to written report ALL the material to do well, and that will definitely include grammar.
The more vocabulary you know, the more chop-chop you tin grow your language skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more words ways more output, and more output means more opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you're interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more benign to communication than grammar is. Being able to produce words will help get your meaning beyond, even if what you say is non perfectly grammatical.[5]

Of course, in order to become fully fluent in your new language, eventually you will need strong grammer skills. But once once again, this is something that having a strong, well-adult vocabulary will help with. Since grammar dictates relationships between words and phrases, agreement those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will help ameliorate your understanding of how those grammatical relationships work.

DO: Blueprint a written report programme that emphasizes vocabulary.

Activities

Now that nosotros've talked most the general principles that you should contain in your language study, let's focus on activities: practical suggestions to aid you find new ways to grow your language skills!

Find existent-life sources

Since 1 of the chief 3 components of language learning is input, expect for ways to betrayal yourself to as much of the language y'all're learning as possible. But this doesn't mean reading more textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that yous're excited about). Instead, look for "authentic" examples of the language, things you'll really relish and look forward to practicing with, fifty-fifty if yous don't understand every discussion!

Hither are some examples to get you lot started:

Paper articles, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and once you've tried reading them a few times, information technology'due south like shooting fish in a barrel to interpret the key parts to check your agreement. Look for a topic yous're already interested in and follow it with a news reader app!

Books: Children's motion picture books and books y'all've read before in your native language are easy options for intermediate/avant-garde beginners. The library often has great options available for gratuitous!

Television receiver shows and movies: Endeavour watching them without subtitles the first time, starting in ~xv minute segments. Another smashing pick is to watch beginning without any subtitles, so with subtitles in the language you're learning, and then finally with subtitles in your native language if you demand them. Lather operas are also great options (especially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are ofttimes explained multiple times.

Songs: Music, especially popular songs, can exist especially well suited to linguistic communication practice, since you're probable to memorize the ones you lot enjoy. Ask a instructor or native speaker for recommendations if you lot're struggling to find skillful examples. Children'southward songs tin can as well be fun practice tools.

Podcasts and audio books: There are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and every bit a bonus you'll frequently become exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get you started, we recommend this site, which has a great list of podcasts for many different languages.

Too, consider tweaking some of your media settings to "bump upward" your casual language exposure. For example, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences volition forcefulness yous to interact with the linguistic communication you're learning, fifty-fifty when you're (mostly) wasting fourth dimension.

Pro tips

Ameliorate the effectiveness of this activity by using the following suggestions!

Deadening information technology down: If you're listening to a podcast or audio book, try slowing downward the speed just a bit: 0.75x is a common selection, and the slowed-downward audio still doesn't sound too strange. As well, make sure to have breaks frequently to aid you process what yous've just heard.

Combine your senses: In many cases, you can combine types of input to help create a more learning environment: reading and listening to a text at the same time can help you lot better your comprehension. For example, for TV shows and movies, plow on subtitles in the same language. Other options include:

• Radio news stories frequently have both audio and transcripts available online, especially for pieces that are a few days old.
• Amazon's Kindle offers an "immersive reading" pick that syncs audio books with text.
• TED talks come in many different languages, and oft include an interactive transcript.
• If you're an ESL educatee, the ESL Bits website has some great resources that link reading and listening, and it also has adjustable sound speeds!

Get hooked: To make this strategy as effective equally possible, notice a source that y'all really enjoy, and commit to experiencing it only in the linguistic communication you're learning. Having a go-to plan that you love will aid go along you motivated. For case, if you lot love podcast/radio story programs like "Radiolab" and are learning Spanish, check out "Radio Ambulante."

Hold shadow conversations

A key part of learning a new linguistic communication involves training your ear. Unlike written linguistic communication, spoken language doesn't accept the same context clues that assistance y'all decipher and divide out words. Plus, in addition to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to "smoosh" words together, which is even more confusing for language learners![6] In part, this is why listening to existent-life sources can be so helpful (run across the previous activeness).

Even so, even kickoff language learners can benefit from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this ways repeating a conversation word-for-word, even when you don't know what all of the words mean. This helps yous become used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, likewise equally learn to identify individual words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another smashing strategy involves holding practise conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times.

Both of these strategies are not bad ways to help yous learn and retain new vocabulary, and they as well increase your language output in a low-stakes exercise setting!

Example: If you've got a homework practice that involves reviewing an audio or video clip, take a few actress steps to get the most benefit:

• After yous've listened to the clip once, shadow the chat in short sections (call back ~20-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words every bit accurately as possible, paying close attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing.
• One time you can accurately shadow the unabridged prune, so focus on understanding the meaning of the fabric, and reply any homework questions related to the clip.
• At present, use the same vocabulary to create a new chat: think of what y'all would want to say in a real-life situation similar this one, and practice it until you can respond confidently to any side of the exchange.

Become a collector

Since expanding your vocabulary is and then important, identifying new words is a large priority. This is especially truthful when you lot're in an immersion surroundings (studying abroad, etc), but information technology'southward also something that you tin can exercise on a regular basis even when y'all're at abode.

Basically, you need to collect words: whatsoever time you lot run across a new word, y'all want to capture it by recording it in some way. The easiest way to do this is in a small-scale pocket notebook, but you could also put a notation in your telephone, send a text or electronic mail to yourself, or even record yourself saying information technology. The key point is to capture the word as quickly and hands equally possible. Likewise, don't worry too much about spelling or definitions in the moment: you'll deal with those later.

Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, vox memo, etc), it's just the start part of the collection process. Adjacent, you'll demand to review each of the words you've recorded. This is something you'll practise on a regular ground, so that you can really use the words you've recorded. Depending on how many new words y'all're collecting, it might exist every day, every few days, or once a week. This is the time when you observe the correct spelling, write down the definition, maybe find an instance, and and then on.

To make this process equally effective as possible, you also desire to have some sort of arrangement that helps you record and organize your word drove. If you lot like paper-based methods, then flashcards tin be easily organized in index bill of fare boxes, though you might desire to include some alphabetical divider tabs to help yourself stay organized. However, digital tools are particularly helpful with this kind of data, and there are tons of apps that can assistance you organize a large vocabulary drove. But y'all don't demand a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet also works great for most cases.

Finally, you also desire to make sure to use your give-and-take collection! Not simply do y'all need to acquire new words in one case you add them, y'all'll also demand regular review of former words to maintain your vocabulary. This is some other place where digital tools smooth, since it'due south easy to access the entire collection at whatsoever time, making it easier to study and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that you incorporate review along with learning new words.

The 4 bones steps of word collection

1. Capture new words. Listen for them in course, seek them out in conversations, detect them in your "authentic sources," etc. Record them in the moment, without worrying too much about spelling and definitions.
2. Review your new words. Establish a routine so that y'all regularly "empty out" your recording tool and add the new words to your collection.
3. Record and organize your collection. Create an organized organization for your collection; mutual tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional index cards.
4. Utilize your words! Brand sure you're learning new additions and also periodically reviewing older words.

Pro tips

• If you're struggling to notice new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed by the number of words you lot could collect—so try working "backwards." Instead of looking for new words in the linguistic communication you lot're learning, think virtually the gaps in your vocabulary. For example, think nigh the topics you lot frequently discuss in your native linguistic communication. Exercise you know how to talk near those things in the language y'all're learning? Hobbies and other classes are ofttimes great places to starting time.
• If y'all're in a strange language class, you tin use the same word collection arrangement to help yous larn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider colour-coding or tagging words that are class-related if you want to give those words extra attention. If you're using a digital flashcard app, yous might consider creating different card "sets" to help you organize them.

Flashcard zen

Flashcards are one of the nearly common tools that language learners use. There is a good reason for this: they're easily portable, they're first-class for learning brusk pieces of data (like new words), and used correctly they're a great remember-based study strategy. However, flashcards are non without bug. For case, it'due south far too piece of cake to devote excessive time to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and and then spend comparatively little time actually using them! The following tips describe means to utilize flashcards in a strategic and effective style.

Less is more

The more fourth dimension you spend making flashcards, the less fourth dimension you spend using them…only if you don't brand flashcards, and then y'all don't have any to use. The betoken backside this paradox is that you desire to minimize the time and attempt you put into the flashcard set up-up process. This is a situation where perfectionism can actually harm you: if you focus on making absolutely "perfect" flashcards, so you're really just wasting fourth dimension.

Similarly, you too want to minimize the volume of information y'all put on each flashcard. Flashcards should non be pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each card should have just enough information on it to test your memory. Instead of containing many details, a adept flashcard will serve every bit a "cue" that triggers your retentiveness. This way, you're forcing your brain to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain potent memories.

Mix it upwardly

Some other common flashcard issue is that they promote rote memorization, so that information is divorced from context. Only in real life, yous'll be using your vocabulary in a wide range of contexts. Just practicing vocabulary in rote drills may end upwards slowing you downwards when yous need to actually apply the words.[vii]

One case of this is the "translation" phenomenon: instead of learning to acquaintance new words with their meanings, they become associated with the word in your native language. If you're always translating word-for-word in your head, and so it takes much longer to empathise and interact. A groovy way to reduce this outcome is to change the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you might represent the pregnant of new words with a picture—or for digital flashcards, yous could even use audio files.

Instance: Imagine a beginning student (and native English speaker) learns that the Arabic discussion for door is "bab" (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this word:

• Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on ane side, and in English on the other
• Audio flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic word on 1 side, and the spoken word in English on the other
• Pictoral flashcard: a motion picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other

You tin can also combine these types to make unlike hybrid-style flashcards. Once again, don't effort to make elaborate, perfect flashcards—simply something that volition push you to associate words with meanings, instead of just their translations. Non all of your flashcards have to use non-written cues, but information technology's a great way to add together diversity and preclude "translation" memory.

Additionally, make certain to practise using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if you've already gone through a set of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the next time y'all use it, so that y'all're getting prompted past the language you're learning.

Yous can likewise avoid the pitfalls of rote memorization by making certain to practice using the words in context. For instance, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that up by using the word in a sentence. This is peculiarly good for words you lot've already learned and are at present reviewing. You can also plough this into a game, where you brand up "mad-lib" style sentences by randomly drawing cards and combining them. If y'all're working with a partner or study group, you can also use flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary.

Make information technology a habit

Ultimately, flashcards are just a tool, albeit one that is ideally suited to vocabulary practice. And as with any kind of practice, the more than fourth dimension you put in, improve your results will be: flashcards work all-time when used frequently and consistently. If y'all desire to become the most out of your flashcards, turn using them into a regular addiction. Hither are some tips to keep in listen:

Small-scale sets, many reps: To meliorate memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and do each set several times before moving on to the next one. Also, brand sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and one time you've reviewed a set of words, put it bated for a day or two earlier reviewing information technology again.

Increment portability: Make sure you accept full advantage of the portable nature of flashcards. If you lot're using newspaper, then consider using a folder ring and hole punch to keep small sets together. You might also apply smaller cards: since yous'll be making simple cards (minimalism!), you could probably cutting a regular 3"x5" alphabetize bill of fare into halves (or even quarters) and withal have more enough room! Even if you use total-sized newspaper cards, you increase portability past being selective in the number you accept with you. Retrieve, you want to space out your sets and reps, so information technology isn't necessary to carry all your cards with you all the time. If yous're using digital tools, look for apps that can sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, computer, web, etc.

Wasted' time: Since flashcards are so portable, they're a nifty way to plow "wasted" time into useful time. How much time do you spend riding the autobus? How about stuck in line at the grocery shop, or waiting for an appointment at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and exercise a quick vocab review. If you're doing small sets it won't take very long to go through one, and you've just bumped up your number of reps for the day!

Create a routine: Habits are powerful. Once you've established a behavior blueprint, you lot notice yourself doing it without thinking about it. So think about how you can create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using "wasted" time is a skillful start, particularly if you have a daily bus commute. What about taking five minutes every morning to do vocabulary review while you potable your coffee? Or making it your offset "subsequently-dinner to do" once you've finished eating? Once you find ways to make vocabulary flashcards function of your daily routine, you can use the ability of habit to help grow your vocabulary.

Periodic review: Once you've learned new words, you're not done with those flashcards—instead, apply them to keep your vocabulary strong. Each week, randomly select a few words to review. You might do a review set one time each 24-hour interval, or the review words can be mixed in with your electric current learning sets (this is a great way to keep your word drove going strong!).

Make information technology fun

Learning a new language is a lot of piece of work, simply that'southward not what motivated you lot to get-go studying it in the first place, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work away, or be able to talk with people from other countries, maybe even report literature or history… Whatever got you interested in this language in the first place, it'due south probably a lot more fun than all this studying is.

Here'south the thing: whenever you tin exercise something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you to written report your new language, or y'all discover something new and exciting near the language you lot're studying or the cultures that use it, use your excitement to boost your motivation. It's what will go along y'all going—and that kind of persistence is a primal factor in language learning success.[8]

Only in addition to staying focused on what yous enjoy, you can also deliberately create fun social activities that also assistance you grow your language skills. For example, attempt hosting a dinner and movie "theme" dark with friends who are studying the same language. Create a "mini-immersion" environment: watch movies in the language you're learning, cook some authentic cuisine, and try to speak simply in your new (shared!) language. It's a great way to get some authentic, low-stakes practise. (Plus, it's a dandy alibi for a party!)

Parting advice

In addition to this handout, at that place are lots of resources to aid you with your language learning goals.

• If you're in a language class, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors oftentimes have slap-up advice for study strategies—in addition to their teaching experience, at i betoken they were learning a new linguistic communication, merely similar you are!
• Check out what the language department offers: peradventure in that location is a peer tutoring plan, or conversation tables (aka "language coffee hours"), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments often have online resources equally well, so be sure to check out their websites.
• Look for other campus organizations that offering language learning resources, such equally global studies and student groups.

UNC linguistic communication departments, programs, and curricula

• Department of Asian Studies
• Department of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies
• Department of Romance Studies
• Department of German and Slavic Languages and Literatures
• Program in American Indian and Indigenous Studies
• Curriculum in Global studies

Works consulted

Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and cocky-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Linguistic communication business firm.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, Yard. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, Yard. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with constructive learning techniques promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Scientific discipline in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, South. T. (1995). Readings on 2d linguistic communication acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in 2nd language acquisition. Readings on second linguistic communication acquisition, 138-160.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on linguistic communication learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Modernistic Linguistic communication Journal,73(4), 404-419.

Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999.

Son, L. M., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(iii), 379-399.

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[i] Chocolate-brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999

[2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012

[3] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional bug. The Modern Language Periodical,73(4), 404-419.

[4] Dunlosky et al, 2013

[5] Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse.

[half dozen] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998

[7] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989

[8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995.

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